Dante Alighieri and the Divine Comedy

Introduction The immense contribution of the Italian poets and authors has remained underestimated due to the lack of public knowledge concerning their legendary contribution towards the understanding of the Italian history, culture, virtues, and politics.1Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Dante Alighieri and the Divine Comedy specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Dante Alighieri is one of the most renowned poets and authors who earmarked a new era in the Italian writing industry through his novelty in writing plays and books that portrayed the Italian history. Dante existed in Italy during the pre-colonial period when Italy was experiencing extreme political intolerances and extensive attrition among the racially divided communities.2 An exposure to such political circumstances impelled Dante to use his artistic knowledge to design an epic poem featuring political themes. The Divine Comedy is one of his impre ssive poems, where he transferred the ideas of political animosities into elegant poetic themes. This paper explores the political themes found in the Divine Comedy especially in the three major poems: Inferno, Purgatorio, and the Paradiso. The Political Vision of Dante in the Divine Comedy During the 14th century, the nation of Italy witnessed a comeback of a political and religious confusion.3 Italy has historically associated the national leadership with certain religious values enshrined in the Christian doctrine of the Roman churches. Since time immemorial, the political culture of the Italian nation dwelled on the interaction between the state politicians and the leaders of the Roman Catholic Churches. During the era of Dante in the 1300s, popularly known as the papacy regime, the Italian nation was experiencing serious political shambles.4 The political wrangles permeated the Empires, the Kingdoms, and the Italian States, when the French crown and the Roman Catholic political leaders disagreed on the location of the pope offices. Since the Italian nation consisted of a diverse group of individuals, the secular authority and the ecclesiastical leaders clashed in their opinions.5 Dante saw the Italian nation and its people divided into certain sociopolitical groups due to the political instabilities of his country during the era of 1303s and 1305s. The Italian nation during the era of Dante stood divided into two political categories allied to either the Guelph or the Ghibellines political frameworks. Whereas the initial political frameworks of the two political parties represented the middle class people who were advocating for democracy, the time of Dante saw political attritions that no ordinary person could describe the traits of these individuals.6Advertising Looking for research paper on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Guelph political party supported the pope and ha d a tendency of favoring Pope Boniface VIII, who acted against the will of his fellow Roman Catholic Christians. Conversely, the Ghibellines supported the political ideas of the incumbent emperors and such issues created a racial separation between the White Guelph and the Blacks in the metropolitan city of Florence. Having undergone traumatizing moments under the regime of the Blacks in the exile due to his political stand in the Italian political scene, Dante had several political issues to discuss in his poem, the Divine Comedy.7 Dante had the true experience of the political anguish that resulted from the political issues that marred the Italians. Dante thought the best way to describe the political animosities that were happening during that time was through his poem composing abilities. While in exile, Dante had an inner passion for good governance and a humorous leadership, and had always wanted to advocate for a charismatic headship that most of the Italian leaders lacked.8 Through his book, The Divine Comedy, Dante thought that the human society in the political realm is different and need to fall into certain unique categories. Through this epic poem, Dante categorized the human society in the political realm in three distinct groups, namely, the Purgatorio, Paradiso, and the Inferno.9 Dante expressed the political overtones resulting from the ungracious and malicious leaders and expressed his sentiments concerning the implications of the bad influence of these leaders over the human society. To make the poem more understandable, the three versions of the poems articulated in the Divine Comedy of Dante present the most important themes that Dante wanted to present in his poem.10 Dante mentions Purgatorio as one of the categories of the human society where the political separations were taking place. Paradiso according to Dante in his imaginative journey of the afterlife is the ideal human society, where people possess all the essential components to live a harmonious life.11Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Dante Alighieri and the Divine Comedy specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Purgatorio is another important human society in the poem that Dante considers as a community of dwellers in the transition stage of life, but living in a confused state, lacking religious wisdom, and always struggling to shift from self-centeredness to selflessness.12 The Inferno phase of the life after death is hell where punishment to the sinners such as Judas Iscariot and Brutus is hell, especially when they deny living a holy life. Purgatorio and Political Issues and Themes Dante mentioned the word Purgatorio as one of the main elements of his poem to describe certain groups of the human society. In the Italian language, purgatorio, just as in the English language purgatory, describes the intermediate life of human beings after their physical death.13 Dante uses the word purgatorio to describe the category of people in the human society that are in the transition stage of life, but virtually lacking an organized and an effective structure to transform from their selfish lives.14 The purgatorio section of the poem of the Divine Comedy has a series of political themes and facts that Dante wanted to express in his writing. The people living in the purgatorio section of the human afterlife are those with political voracity, political maliciousness, and often use their power influence to manipulate others.15 Sociopolitical lust, greed, and selfishness are the most eminent themes that people in the Purgatorio section of the afterlife are fond of portraying. Purgatorio: Lust in the Italian Politics Dante claims that the human society in the transition phase of life that he calls Purgatorio has a political framework based on greediness, selfishness, and lust. Dante mentions Sodom and Gomorrah, which were the biblical names that reflect a human society marre d with prostitution, lust, and infidelity.16 The Italian empires, leadership kingdoms, and the States, had leaders that promulgated a social life of lust and prostitution.17 Dante reveals that the people in the purgatorio human society lack confidence to remove their selfish bodily desires, their inner motives towards sexuality, and their negative influence on others.18 The purgatorio section of the human society involves men and women living a life of prestige and prosperity that gives them powerful influence on their moral actions. Affluence and political power, influenced these prosperous women and men to have a domineering sociopolitical influence on others in the Purgatorio human society, to either follow certain life directions, or towards their immoral ways.19Advertising Looking for research paper on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In the poem, Dante explained that the greatest civil sins that occur in politics and sociopolitical overtones result in suicide and heresy, with the church considering civil sins more ferocious than the underestimated religious sins.20 The people living in the Purgatorio phase of life are living in political fantasies and the minority end up suffering from the powerful influence of the political kingpins. The lifestyles of the ordinary families reveal a life of economically depressed individuals who dwell on policies and rules, purposely designed for the prosperous and not the poor.21 Dante felt that the manipulative powers of politicians ruined the social harmony and caused social disorder. The political actions of individuals seemed guided by the disarray souls of politicians who were generating political influence and wealth for their own selfish desires.22 Achilles died because of infidelity, Princes Paris and Tristan, lustily stole the wives of the Kings, leading to serious nat ional troubles. Purgatorio: Greediness in the Italian Politics Dante thought that the political frameworks that the politicians designed were literally for the benefit of the minority few in the political scene. The purgatory phase of life is where individuals have the ability to shun away from their personal malice, but have often failed to anchor to a framework that allows them to transform.23 Dante exclaims, â€Å"Because thy father and thyself have suffered, by greed of those transalpine lands detrained, the garden of the empire to be waste.†24 Political frameworks and politicians have divided individuals in the human society and made them focus on personal matters rather than the interest of the society.25 The above exclamation of Dante reveals the power of politics in dividing people to have personal interests on wealth, land, precious items, and prosperity rather than the common good of the societies. Dante connects his political illusions concerning greediness with th e actions of the biblical Judas who betrayed Jesus for silver.26 Politicians and some religious leaders fell in the category of greedy or gluttonous people who occupied the purgatory phase of life. Dante claims that the negative contribution of a church or any religion in the political realm is offensive to the religious doctrines, as some church individuals have used these state-religion relationships for their personal gains.27 The human society has remained confused since the majority of the followers of Christians consider religions honest. The responsibilities of the church leaders to lead the followers spiritually seem to shift from the consideration of community needs to individual attention towards wealth, pleasure, and power.28 The sociopolitical overtone of greediness makes a few individuals superrich, while the majority civilians languish in destitute poverty and insolvency. Selfish motivation on wealth is an evil deed that puts not only those politicians involved in trou bles, but also affects the vision of others towards having a positive national future. Politicians are greedy and can barely spur national growth.29 The Hell: Political Treachery The section of the human society in the Purgatorio phase are people with ambitions of change, but are lacking a straightforward structure to withdraw from their treacherous, violent, and fraudulent political lives. Dante expresses his intrinsic fear concerning the animosities present in the leadership of Italy where politicians are exercising manipulation over the extreme population.30 The political environment of Italians was treacherous, and the politicians were capable of using deceive and cheat tricks on the uninformed majority to have certain political gains. The political treachery that the politicians use to manipulate the uninformed majority in the sociopolitical arena makes the citizens confused and mystified against their personal decisions towards good lives.31 Dante reveals that politicians are the people destroying the harmonious living of the people in the Purgatorio phase of life as they use deceiving techniques to manipulate the populations. Leaders of the Italian nation demonstrate ill will against the nation and contribute to increase in fraud, corruption, and deception. The characters concerned with the political issues of Italy, both religious and political, practiced graft that ruined the economic stability of the Italian nation.32 Dante discusses the involvement of politicians in civil sins that include corruption, deception, and fraud that initially destabilized the status of the Italian economy. In the inferno section of the poem, Dante scoffed the corrupt leaders such as Caucus who stole herds of cattle from his own people and caused bloodshed on the Mount Aventine.33 Dante claimed that Caucus led with â€Å"hypocrisy, flattery, and dealt with magic, falsification, theft, and simony.† Dante believed that the politicians who saturated Florence and other Italian cities had a complicated character, with a complete lack of moral uprightness.34 Politicians of the era of Dante used their political influence to dispossess people of their valued native morals and planted corruption, fraud, and dishonesty in them. The Hell: Violence and Injustice in Politics The hell or the inferno section of the human society involves individuals driven by personal selfish desires and not the common good of all individuals in a human society. Dante expressed his inner anger and passion against the influence of politics and the politicians in the violence that the human society experienced.35 One of the biggest categories of sinners in the nine chambers of the structure of hell according to the arrangement of Dante is violence. The violence class of sinners in hell is the people, who caused atrocities against their neighbors, friends, themselves, and even God.36 â€Å"A death by violence, and painful wounds, are to our neighbor given; and in his substance ruin, and arson, and injurious levies.†37 The political concern about the violence that marred the Italians in the city of Florence is the unfair taxation that politicians instigated and orchestrated against the innocent Italian population due to their own selfish political desires.38 The city of Florence had violent leaders who caused anguish to the people, destroyed public property, denied others justice, and caused psychological and physical torture to the human population.39 The rulers in the city of Florence practiced laws and policies that favored their malicious plans in the government and subjected the human society to poverty, diseases, racial hatred, and alienation. Dante expresses the state of aggression by saying, â€Å"perchance indeed by violence of palsy, someone has been thus wholly turned awry.†40 People retrogressed because of the poor political plans of the politicians who ruled with malice and not charisma. Instead of developing economically, violen ce tore the Florence City apart, causing some serious economic, social, and cultural depletion.41 Dante describes the retrogression of the underprivileged in the cities by saying,† and backward it behooved them to advance, as to look forward had been taken from them.†42 Politicians acted like people who deserved hell according to Dante.43 The Hell: Political Flattery and Hypocrisy The inferno section of the poem describes the human society that comprises of politicians and malicious humans with flattery and hypocrisy behaviors. The struggle between religious powers and control over the national governance and the contribution of the leaders from the secular authority is what disturbs Dante while classifying the people in the inferno section of human society as hypocritical.44 Dante laments that the religion and the secular communities have formed a complex mixture within the Italian societies and made it difficult to understand who between them has a genuine political in tention in the empire leadership.45 The nine circles of hell that Dante describes as the place of different sinners portray the people of flattery and hypocrisy as those with false piety like the politicians. Dante indicates that politicians would use their dirty techniques on civilians to proclaim power and authority over the human society.46 The leaders of the church such as Pope Boniface VIII involved in the politics acted with hypocrisy and flattery against the innocent population of the people of the Florence city. The rulers who fought for the empire leadership acted with pretence concerning the underway corruption and wrangles concerning the Italian States. The French King Philip IV and Pope Boniface VIII deceivably convinced the citizens that they were fighting for the goodness of the clergy in France.47 However, the two individuals confronted each other because they wanted to claim power on the clergy in France.48 The church distanced itself from corruption and pointed out that the church consisted of holy leaders who were only interested in reprimanding the graft witnessed in the government.49 Nonetheless, there existed an ongoing graft in the churches and the secular authority also reprimanded, but it often went unnoticed because of the creed influence the church had over the Christian community. The Hell: Hierarchies in the Italian Empires The poem of Dante describes the political leadership where authority and power are components of leadership that twisted the Italian cities into violence and internal aggression.50 The Italian leadership expressed a form of governance that falls under the authoritarian form of leadership, where the powers and hierarchies between the individuals and the society, are important portions of decision-making.51 The era of Papacy saw the Italian nation split, because of the rigid hierarchies and powers that the church leadership and emperors practiced. The national rules and regulations depicted an authoritarian leaders hip, which seemed to favor the rich politicians and oppress the economically underprivileged.52 â€Å"She can no longer move me, by that law which, when I issued forth from there, was made.† The leaders made rules by themselves, and for themselves, to oppress the poor in the human society.53 Dante believes that such leaders deserve the hell section, because of the animosities and oppression they inflict on the innocent human society. Conclusion The work of Dante in the Divine Comedy concerning the political issues that marred the Italian empires and kingdoms during the 1300s reflects true leadership problems that have persisted in many nations since the evolution of the humankind. The Divine Comedy highlights several political themes and issues that proliferated within the Kingdoms and empires of the Italian cities. Authoritarian leadership marked by lust, greed, hypocrisy, manipulation, corruption, fraud, flattery, bloodshed, heresy and other moral mishaps, disturbed Dante i n his life. Dante feels that the true character of politicians is complex, and not easy to define from a layperson’s perspective. Politicians demonstrate their real characters, but use their political powers to rob the innocent people of justice, their rights to the good life, their rights to good health, and their rights to genuine leadership. Neither the church leadership, nor the secular leadership, has a definite space in heaven due to their actions. Bibliography Alexander, Jason. â€Å"Dante Understands of the Two Ends of Human Desire and the Relationship between Philosophy and Theology.† The Journal of Religion 91, no. 2 (2011): 158-187. Alighieri, Dante and Stanley Lombardo. Inferno. New York: Hackett Publishing, 2009. Alighieri, Dante. The Divine Comedy: Inferno, Purgatorio, Paradiso. San Ontario: Bibliotech Press, 2014. Bruckman, Paul. La Divina Commedia (The Divine Comedy): Inferno. London: Xlibris Corporation, 2011. Crouch, Colin. â€Å"The Divine Comedy of Contemporary Citizenship.† The Political Quarterly 72, no.1 (2001): 149-154. Ferrante, Joan. The Political Vision of the â€Å"Divine Comedy† New York: Princeton University Press, 2014. Fusini, Leticia. â€Å"World Humanism(s), the Divine Comedy, Lao She’s (‘Literature of the Soul and Buddhism’), and Gao’s Soul Mountain.† Comparative Literature and Culture 15, no. 5 (2013): 2-9. Keen, Catherine and David Martin. â€Å"The Divine Comedy.† Christian Book Summaries 4, no. 21 (2008): 2-7. Landas, Sarah. â€Å"Allusions in Dante’s Inferno.† A journal of undergraduate Student Research 5, no. 9 (2002): 91-112. Longfellow, Henry. â€Å"The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri.† An Electronic Classics Series Publication 1, no. 1 (2005): 7-382. Marco, Andreacchio. â€Å"Unmasking Limbo: Reading Inferno IV as Key to Dante’s Comedy.† A Journal of Political Philosophy 40, no. 2 (2013): 199. Norton, Charles. â⠂¬Å"The Divine Comedy: Hell (The Inferno).† An Electronic Classics Series Publication 1, no. 2 (2013): 7-13. Pampinella-Cropper, Margherita. Family and the Body Politic in Dante’s Divine Comedy: Classical and Medieval Metamorphoses. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin—Madison, 2002. Quinones, Ricardo. Foundation Sacrifice in Dante’s Commedia. Pennsylvania: Penn State Press, 2010. Footnotes 1 Colin, Crouch, â€Å"The Divine Comedy of Contemporary Citizenship,† The Political Quarterly 72, no.1 (2001):150. 2 Colin, Crouch, (2001):150. 3 Colin, Crouch, (2001):150. 4 Paul, Bruckman, â€Å"La Divina Commedia (The Divine Comedy): Inferno (London: Xlibris Corporation, 2011), 71. 5 Paul, La Divina Commedia (The Divine Comedy): Inferno, 94. 6 Paul, La Divina Commedia (The Divine Comedy): Inferno, 101. 7 Paul, La Divina Commedia (The Divine Comedy): Inferno, 114. 8 Dante Alighieri and Stanley Lombardo, Inferno (New York: Hackett Publishing, 2009), 17. 9 Dante Alighieri and Stanley Lombardo, Inferno, 27. 10 Dante Alighieri and Stanley Lombardo, Inferno, 27. 11 Joan, Ferrante, The Political Vision of the â€Å"Divine Comedy† (New York: Princeton University Press, 2014), 6. 12 Joan, The Political Vision of the â€Å"Divine Comedy†, 6. 13 Joan, The Political Vision of the â€Å"Divine Comedy†, 4. 14 Joan, The Political Vision of the â€Å"Divine Comedy†, 5. 15 Catherine , Keen and David Martin, â€Å"The Divine Comedy,† Christian Book Summaries 4, no. 21 (2008): 5. 16 Catherine, Keen, and David Martin, (2008): 7. 17 Sarah, Landas, â€Å"Allusions in Dante’s Inferno,† A journal of undergraduate Student Research 5, no. 9 (2002): 91. 18 Sarah, Landas, (2002): 93. 19 Andreacchio, Marco, â€Å"Unmasking Limbo: Reading Inferno IV as Key to Dante’s Comedy† A Journal of Political Philosophy 40, no. 2 (2013): 199. 20 Andreacchio, Marco, (2013): 199. 21 Andreacchio, Marco, (2013): 199. 22 Charles, Norton, â€Å"The Divine Comedy: Hell (The Inferno),† An Electronic Classics Series Publication 1, no. 2 (2013): 8. 23 Charles, Norton, (2013): 11. 24 Henry, Longfellow, (2005): 150. 25 Charles, Norton, (2013): 11. 26 Margherita, Pampinella-Cropper, Family, and the Body Politic in Dante’s Divine Comedy: Classical and Medieval Metamorphoses (Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin—Madison, 2002), 25. 27 Margherita, Pampinella-Cropper, Family, and the Body Politic in Dante’s Divine Comedy: Classical and Medieval Metamorphoses, 31. 28 Margherita, Pampinella-Cropper, Family, and the Body Politic in Dante’s Divine Comedy: Classical and Medieval Metamorphoses, 31. 29 Ricardo, Quinones, Foundation Sacrifice in Dante’s Commedia (Pennsylvania: Penn State Press, 2010), 51. 30 Ricardo, Quinones, Foundation Sacrifice in Dante’s Commedia, 53. 31 Dante, Alighieri, The Divine Comedy: Inferno, Purgatorio, Paradiso (San Ontario: Bibliotech Press, 2014), 35 32 Dante, Alighieri, The Divine Comedy: Inferno, Purgatorio, Paradiso, 24. 33 Dante, Alighieri, The Divine Comedy: Inferno, Purgatorio, Paradiso, 52. 34 Dante, Alighieri, The Divine Comedy: Inferno, Purgatorio, Paradiso, 130. 35 Leticia, Fusini, â€Å"World Humanism(s), the Divine Comedy, Lao She’s (‘Literature of the Soul and Buddhism’), and Gao’s Soul Mountain,† Comparative Literature and Culture 15, no. 5 (2013):3. 36 Leticia, Fusini, (2013): 5. 37 Henry, Longfellow, (2005): 74. 38 Leticia, Fusini, (2013): 5. 39 Jason, Alexander, â€Å"Dante Understands of the Two Ends of Human Desire and the Relationship between Philosophy and Theology,† The Journal of Religion 91, no. 2 (2011): 158. 40 Henry, Longfellow, (2005): 74. 41 Jason, Alexander, (2011): 160. 42 Henry, Longfellow, (2005): 74. 43 Jason, Alexander, (2011): 163. 44 Jason, Alexander, (2011): 160. 45 Jason, Alexander, (2011): 160. 46 Henry, Longfellow, â€Å"The Divine Comed y of Dante Alighieri.† An Electronic Classics Series Publication 1, no. 1 (2005): 17. 47 Ricardo, Quinones, Foundation Sacrifice in Dante’s Commedia, 53. 48 Ricardo, Quinones, Foundation Sacrifice in Dante’s Commedia, 53. 49 Ricardo, Quinones, Foundation Sacrifice in Dante’s Commedia, 53. 50 Colin, Crouch, (2001):150. 51 Charles, Norton, (2013): 11. 52 Charles, Norton, (2013): 11. 53 Charles, Norton, (2013): 11. 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How to Make a Marijuana Tincture Making a marijuana tincture is an easy way to extract THC and cannabinoids from Cannabis. A tincture is an alcohol-based solution, used to extract organics from herbs and other plants. Tinctures are useful because they isolate certain compounds better than soaking or boiling herbs in water, the alcohol acts as a natural preservative, and medicinal tinctures often take effect more quickly than other administration routes, like eating, drinking, or smoking. Marijuana Tincture Materials A typical ratio of plant matter to alcohol would be 1 gram to 1 fluid ounce (35 ml) of alcohol. Up to 6 grams of Cannabis can be used, depending on your resources and how concentrated you want the end product to be. Do not use any other type of alcohol besides ethyl alcohol or ethanol (e.g., isopropyl alcohol or methyl alcohol), as these chemicals are toxic. Cannabis sativa bud, fresh or driedHigh-proof ethanolFlavoring (optional)Small glass jar with lidBrown or blue glass dropper bottle Everclear is a popular source of ethanol because it is so high in alcohol. 151 rum also works. Be sure to use food-quality ethanol, not denatured alcohol. Denatured alcohol contains contaminants that make it unsafe to drink. Lower concentrations of alcohol will not be as effective for the extraction or preservation. Basic Steps To Prepare a Cannabis Tincture Place the marijuana in the bottle.  Pour alcohol into the bottle, making certain to cover the plant matter.Seal the bottle. Place it in a warm location, out of direct sunlight.Give the alcohol mixture at least a day, but preferably longer than a week to soak. You can shake the bottle from time to time to ensure a good extraction of  the THC and other cannabinoids.Filter the liquid through a coffee filter to remove the solids and reserve the liquid in a dark-colored glass dropper bottle. Avoid using plastic, as the liquid may leach some undesirable compounds from the plastic into the tincture over time. Flavoring may be added to improve the taste of the tincture, if desired.A typical dose would be 3-5 drops, depending on how strong you made the tincture. Start with the minimum amount and see what works best for you. Fast Marijuana Tincture Recipe While the classic tincture instructions are fine, you can prepare a tincture much more quickly if youre willing to put in slightly more preparation time. Also, this method uses less source material (although the tincture is also less potent). This recipe produces an effective tincture in as little as an hour. The disadvantage of the method is that it uses heat, which can damage some of the many cannabinoids in Cannabis if you get carried away. Dont exceed the recommended temperature. Dry about 4-5 grams of a Cannabis sativa bud.Grind the material to increase surface area (speeds extraction).Bake the marijuana is a 240 F over (set for just under 250 F) for 30 minutes. This decarboxylates the matter, improving the extraction of desirable compounds while helping to eliminate unwanted chemicals. Both heat and alcohol can convert  the THCA molecules in the plant matter into active THC.Place the marijuana in 2 ounces of alcohol. Make sure it is covered and seal the container to prevent gas exchange with air.Place the container in a cool, dark location. The longer you allow for the alcohol to extract the cannabinoids, the more potent your tincture will be. You can watch the extraction progress as the color of the liquid changes from clear to green. Once the color is stable (up to 2 or 3 hours), filter the liquid using a coffee filter or cheesecloth. Of course, you can consider the tincture done sooner, but you may lose potency.Store the tincture in a dark glass droppe r bottle. While the alcohol preserves a tincture at room temperature, its fine to refrigerate it to further reduce the chance of mold or fungal growth. How to Use a Marijuana Tincture The ideal way to use this tincture is to apply drops sublingually (under your tongue). Use a few drops and then wait to determine the effect. Cannabinoids are quickly absorbed across the mucosa of the mouth into the bloodstream for distribution to the brain and other parts of the body. If the desired effect is not achieved after the initial dose, a few more drops may be applied.

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Factors For The Rise Of English Neologisms English Language Essay

Factors For The Rise Of English Neologisms English Language Essay Languages are changing as the world is constantly changing. After the Second World War, English neologisms emerged in a remarkable way. New vocabulary came into existence due to new technologies and new discoveries such as ; computing, internet , cell phones and the like. Peoples daily activities like dancing, looking and many others, renewed their popularity giving birth to new lexicon. In deed, new words are invented rapidly and are developed quickly thanks to mass communication. They appear and fall into disuse when they have served their momentary purpose ( Bernhart 54).Only a few of them will get recorded in glossaries of neologisms of general dictionaries. The matter of neologism becomes a new hot spot of research owing to its practical and prevailing use in reality. The study of neologisms evoked a whole cluster of questions: -What are the reasons beyond the rise of new lexicon? -Why are some new words just a flash in a pan? -Why are other words successful? -What are the qualities that make a word successful? -Are Neologisms markers of changes in societies? Part 01: Literature Review 1.Definition of a Neologism The term neologism originates from Greek: neos means new, logos means word, i. e. a neologism is literally a new word. Neologism is the creation of a new lexical item as a response to changed circumstances in the external world, which achieves some currency within a speech community(qtd. in Chrystal 1992: 264) at a particular time. In linguistics, a neologism is a newly invented word or phrase. It can be an old word or phrase used with a new meaning. The word neologism is a neologism itself, it was coined in 1800. l. 2. Background of English Neologisms The collection of dictionaries that contain neologisms started in 1604.The early Neologisms dictionarieswere: Table Alphabeticall (1604, Robert Cawdrey), English Expositor (1616, John Bullokar), and The English Dictionarie (1623, Henry Cockeram).Those dictionaries had some features of neologisms dictionaries but the true study of neologisms began in the 20 century, some 200 years later. The first neologisms book is Word-Coinage, being an Inquiry Into Recent Neologisms, also a Brief Study of Literary Style, Slang, and Provincialisms by Leon Mead in 1902.It was not a real dictionaries, it contained a set of articles about new words. In 1920, there was a remarkable progress in the research of new words with the book of C.Alphonso Smith entitled New Words Self-defined.it included 420 new words with examples.He wrote some articles entitled Words and Meanings, New. . From 1937 to 1940, Dwight Bolinger ( Famous American Scholar) invented a column ,The Living Language, in the newspaper, Words.Later, it was changed into Among the New Words.In 1944, Professor I. Willis Russell became the editor of this column . World War II was a major reason of the birth of new words .In 1944, Majorie Taylor collected the new words created during the War in a word-list entitled The Language of World War II: Abbreviation, captions, Quotations, Slogans, Titles and Other Terms and Phrases.At the same time, Clarence Barnhart printed his Dictionary of U.S. Army Terms. After the World War II, science and technology development had greatly effected the society. A lot of scientific and technical words were brought into language. A lot of neologism dictionaries about words in those fields were published. Two of them are mostly welcomed: An Explaining and Pronouncing Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Words by W. E. Flood Michael West and Words of Sciences and the History Blind Them by Isaac Asimov. From 1970s on, the study of English neologism drew great attention from western scholars, many of them established special column to introduce new words in English, such as William Safire who was well known for his On Language in New York Times weekly and Anne H. Soukhanow who was the chief-editor of Word Watch. In Safires column, he provided a considerably clear explanation of new words by citing typical examples, exploring their origins and performing their current usage. The digital revolution in 1990s is the radical reshaping and restructuring of social patterns. Because of the wild spread of internet, America is speaking a whole new language, said Shawn Holley in his The New Word Revolution. Lots of neologisms that have a historical significance by reason of the influence they exerted on the language field are brought into existence. According to the statistics, more than 20 neologism dictionaries have been compiled, among which some put emphasis on the academic field and some are distinctive by their popularity. Oxford English Dictionary, Websters Third New International Dictionary and Barhart Dictionary of New English are the ones with the highest academic value. New words are numerous. Sometimes it seems as if a new word has about as much chance of developing into a permanent addition to our vocabulary. Only few of them will remain as serious candidates for the dictionary. Books especially about new words are abundant. However, only a few scholars have ventured to propose factors that make for the success of new words. One is Goran Kjellmer, whose article Potential Words in the journal Word for August 2000 also reviews previous proposals. The other is the executive secretary of American Dialect Society, Allan Metcalf who proposed the FUDGE scale. The two reached different conclusions. Along with books and periodicals, there is the Internet. In particular, it makes my extensive searches for examples of how words are actually used today possible. Here the author has searched thousands of pages indexed by Google.com countless times to find current uses of words under discussion. A jump of several decades has showed us more researches on the neologisms. Language reflects our life, and the research on the neologisms has never been stopped. By collecting new words or phrases occurring in languages, the previous researches have provided precious materials for the further exploration in this field. Therefore, a careful look at the research background of neologisms carries an essential academic significance. In china, the study of neologism began from 1980s. Most of the specific works and papers are mere introduction of theories from abroad lacking of much original study. To keep up with the latest English vocabulary is really difficult, thus a thorough and systematic analysis about English new words is of practical significance both in learning and teaching of English as a foreign language. Part 02: Factors for the Rise of English Neologisms The resaons beyond the rise of new words are numouroes, some are internal causes or linguistic (phonological, morpho-syntactic, lexical or semantic) , others are external which , we will see in this part. Mcmahon M.S (1994: 179-182) discusses causes of semantic change and describes the following: Linguistic causes Historical causes (subdivided into ideas and scientific concepts) Social causes Psychological causes (subdivided into emotive factors and taboo) Foreign influence The need for a new name 2.1. Sociolcultural Changes: 2.1.1. New ideas in Society and Culture. Changes in social outlook and manners of behavior call for new terms such as beatnik, peacenik, and hippie. Even new culinary arrangements demand new labels and in English they have some forth in the form of cheeseburger, chiliburger, mushroomburger, etc. (Anderson, 1973) Brian Foster presents us a striking example of how fast English vocabulary changes. In the year 1914, a young girl named Monica Baldwin entered a convent, remaining secluded there until 1941. When she returned to the outer world, she found herself in a totally different world: the conditions of everyday life altered by technical developments and social changes were beyond recognition. Whats more puzzling to her was the language people speaking. During a railway journey, the term luggage in advance meant nothing to her. Reading the daily newspapers made her feel idiotic in the extreme, because words like jazz, Gin, Hollywood, Cool, noshing and Isolationism were completely incomprehensible to her. Not to mention how bewildered she was at hearing friends say, Its your funeral or believe it or not. (Brian Foster, 1981) 2.1.2. Disguising Language, Misnomers Misnomers are words that replace taboo words or banned words.In order not to deceive the hearer, the taboo words are replaced to disguise their unpleaseant meaning.Examples: E. friendly fire instead of bombardment by own troops. 2.1.3.Prestige, Fashion The superiority of a group or politics leads people to use some linguistic elements (words, morphemes, morphs, sounds) from the prestigious group. Example: English, for instance, borrowed from French during the ME. period because the upper social classes were made up of French people:e.g. garment, flower, rose, face, prince, hour, question, dance, fork, royal, loyal, fine, zero are all Gallicisms. An other vivid example is English which is now the most prestigious language in many parts of the world. 2.1.4.Social, or Demographic, Reasons Here, it means the contact between different social groups. As a result of this contact, new lexical items appear. In the history of the English language, the two prominent instances of exchanges between two social groups were the one with the Vikings in the 8th to 11th centuries and the one with the French in the 11th to 15th centuries.Examples: The inherited ey is replaced by Scandinavian egg, the inherited nimen is replaced by Scandinavian taken except for theform benumb, throwen is supplemented by Scandinavian casten; early French loans are army, carpenter, catch. 2.1.5.Culture-Induced Salience of a Concept (Cultural Salience) The salience or the importance of concepts change with change of culture. Example: In the US, a lot of metaphors in general language have been taken from the field of baseball, e.g. to be off base to be completely wrong, to hit a home run to be highly successful and from the field of entrepreneurship. 2.1.6.Word-Play The category of word play includes humor, irony and puns. Although word-play often goes hand in hand with other factors (such as taboo, prestige or anthropological salience), it can also trigger lexical change on its own. Example: to take French leave to leave secretly (without paying), to cool look ( 2.2 Technological Changes New science leads to new words. Aristotle and Newton were neologists.They used new lexicon and new defintions to explain the theory of dynamics Thus, there is no new knowledge without new terms or concepts.Generally a new invention or discovery holds the name of the inventor. Sometimes some technical new words can be found in linguistics such as hypercorrection, allomorph, etc. The word software for example, that computer term was invented by John W. Tukey, a statistician at Princeton University. As long ago as 1958, he used the word in the American Mathematical Monthly. Today the software comprising the carefully planned interpretive routines, compilers, and other aspects of automotive programming are at least as important to the modern electronic calculator as its hardware of tubes, transistors, wires, tapes and the like. Tukey was already known for inventing another now- famous computer term. 2.3 Economic Changes Economic field has a great impact on language.We are in a competition age.This leads to new brand names that want to find a place in the economy market.The success of the product causes the suceesss of its name.The owner of the product has to spend too much money to make the prdut well-known.This is done via advertisemnts to convice peole tp but it and name it as it was advertised.Its name will be a new word in the society. The example of Coca-Cola Company is a good example.due to the geat success of Coke, people can ask for a coke yet they will be satisfied if they are given pepsi , i.e. the word Coke nowadays refers to a soft drink like a coke. Some technical and medical brands find their way in general vocabulary. Examples: à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Aspirin: a name for acetylsalicylic acid, trademarked by the Bayer Company of Germany at the start of the twentieth century. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Elevator and escalator: both originally trademarks of the Otis Elevator Company. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Zipper: a name given to a separable fastener by the B.F. Goodrich Company many years after it was invented. The new name helped the zipper attain popularity in the 1930s. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Loafer: for a moccasin-like shoe. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Cellophane: for a transparent wrap made of cellulose. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Granola: a trademark registered in 1886 by W K. Kellogg, now used for a natural kind of breakfast cereal. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Ping-pong: for table tennis, a trademark registered by Parker Brothers in 1901. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Xerox: for photocopier. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Kleenex: for facial tissue. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Band-Aid: for adhesive bandage. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Tupperware: for storage container. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Scotch tape: for transparent adhesive tape. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Jazzercise: for exercise to jazz music. 2.4. Political Changes. Some important political changes infulence vocabulary and give birth to new words and concepts. For instance, when Mr. Bill Clinton was elected as the president of the US. His name has been associated with many political words. His policy is Clintonian, he is carrying out the Clintionism, his economics policy is Clintonomics, and his supporters were called Clintonites, he ultimately wanted to realize his Clintonization. Another recent political event that took place on Septembet the eleventh has brought a neologism in the American society.Because of the striking coincidence that 911 is the telephone number to call for help in an emergency, that numerical designation of this event has been a success. The events of that day have resulted in a new term: ground zero, for the place of impact, the center of destruction in New York City where the World Trade Towers once stood. That phrase has succeeded because it is not really new; its an old term for the location on the ground directly under a vast atomic explosion, corresponding to air zero, the location in the air above the ground where the bomb goes off. No one knows who first said ground zero in reference to the site where the World Trade Towers were attacked and collapsed, but the term immediately caught on because of its familiarity and emotional power. Part 03: Success of English Neologisms In the previous section, we have seen the reasons of the rise of the new words and how they become part of language.In this part; we will tackle the reasons that make a word successful or the reasons that make a word part of general language dictionary. 3.1 The occurrences The frequency of the new word in a society makes it successful.If the neologisms appears in many various sources such newspapers, magazines and books, it will be included in general dictionaries and becomes a familiar word and no more neologism.This mean the the word becomes popular if it is cited in many sources 3.2 Variety among sources A neologism in its first appearance is common for only a special field .Thus, it is found in technical dictionaries .Consequently , general dictioanries exclude technical terms .But there are some exceptions and some technical words find their place in general dictionaries due to their range in many sources.Example , the phrase intellectual property was limited to some branches .Nowadays, it is widely spead thanks to the new technologies and inventions in each field . 3.3 Cruciality in a given field Sheidlower defines cruciality as the need for a word to exist (35). Lets take the example of the acronym AIDS invented in 1982.This acronym is still the given name to this killing disease.It will hold the same name even if a cure is invented for this disease because of the importance and cruciality of this sickness, its referent is a crucial matter in society (qtd. in Sheidlower 35). The word whirlpooling, though it is the only word used to describe such a behaviour, it is not included in a general dictionary because the phenomenon is rare and unusual , rare and unusual phenomenon (qtd. in Sheidlower 36). 3.4 Durability or Endurance ( Existance) Each new word appears in a specific period of time.But if it has suffiecient evidence such as frequency of occurrences, range among sources, cruciality in a given field, it may be included in a general dictionary. New Deal is a good example here.So some neologisms refer to their time period, culture, policies and the like. Conclusion If a word wants to stay alive, it has to be admitted widely in public speech and used by mass media, and/or personalities, such as politicians, authors etc. (Barnhart 56). Depending on the editor and on what kind of dictionary a coinage should enter, one factor might be more of a value than another. Of the many thousands new words created each year, about 200 new words fulfill the above-mentioned conditions and make their way into a standard dictionary. Authors, TV, radio and news reporters use these new terms on a large scale, and thus they become vogue words for a certain period of time or even forever (Barnhart 56). But then the struggle of a new word is not over yet. If it is not used anymore or lost its importance, it will be deleted in the end (Sheidlower 38). Practical considerations play their part in the march of a word into a dictionary. Chief among these is the scope of the dictionary and its physical limitations. Because general lexicography is a commercial art form, dictionaries reflect the judgment of their makers and the needs of their publishers. Consequently, no dictionary is complete. There is a considerable difference between general dictionaries and Among the New Words. The dictionaries aim is to supplement the existing English vocabulary, whereas Among the New Words aims to chronicle the development of the English language (Barnhart 59). For this reason, these criteria stated above (2.4.1 to 2.4.4) hardly apply to Among the New Words.

Teaching Essay -- Pedagogy

Thus suggesting practitioners should embrace and accept the approach enabling them to â€Å"adopt learning strategies that embed the acquisition of knowledge and skills into meaningful context† (Macleod-Brudenell and Kay, 2008, p.311). Moss and Petrie (2002) support this concept by stating â€Å"pedagogy can be used to refer to whole domain of social responsibility for children, for their well-being, learning and competence† (p.138). Pugh and Duffy (2006) suggest a pedagogue is the one who leads and educates children’s learning. This effectively impacts upon children’s learning and enables them to become confident learners. As well as encouraging children to be in control of their own interests and learning (Every child matters, 2004). Allen and Whalley (2010) adopt Whalley, Allen and Wilson’s (2008) notion that the role of the practitioner is extremely significant and address the idea that effective pedagogy is about improving outcomes for children’s learning. Therefore in order to provide an effective provision for children to learn and grow in practitioners must be able to maintain positive interactions with the children. Allen and Whalley (2009) adopt Curtis and O’Hagan’s (2009, p. 156) concept that theorists such as Bruner and Vygotsky have influenced pedagogy by placing â€Å"emphasis upon the importance of the adult in facilitating children’s learning†. This promotes children’s learning. Good practice would be for the practitioners to try to extend and build upon the child’s knowledge by scaffolding their learning through ideas and questions (Bee and Boyd, 2007). Additionally, Allen and Whalley (2010, p.7) highlight the forth theme of the EYFS as â€Å"positive relationships†. Bruce (2008) resonates with the National strategies (2009) no... ...one year. Partnership with parents provides the teachers to be able to get to understand the child’s family to gain a greater knowledge basis of the child’s needs. Curtis and O’Hagan (2009) illustrate that parents and teachers meet up throughout the school year to discuss any problems they or the children may be having. This is good practice as it ensures the practitioners are receiving all the information they can to help support the children within their care to reach their full potential. Reggio Emilia however, believes in continual assessment. This concept expects practitioners to record and review what children say and do on a regular basis. This system is viewed by parents at any point. Reggio Emilia values this system very highly and ensures parents know they are completing a reflective and extensive process that can help contribute to children’s learning.

New Jersey Revenue Reform

In his State of the State speech, Governor Corzine identified five broad areas of revenue reform in New Jersey, i.e., pensions and benefits, shared services, debt reduction, modernization of the tax structure, and sustainability.   The centerpiece of the direct property tax relief is the tax credits in the form of 20%, 15%, and 10%, depending on the amount of income per household.   Governor Corzine was explicit about this in his speech.He was equally explicit in stating that for the tax credit system to work, there must be a solid, concrete source of funding.   For this, he pointed out the sales tax revenues and the redirected homestead rebates will supply the first influx of financing.   As for the succeeding years, the balance is proposed to come from the following: 1) cost savings achieved through regular and independent auditing by a new, nonpolitical state comptroller; 2) consolidations and shared services; 3) collective bargaining on pension and health benefits; 4) ass et monetization designed to reduce the state's credit card payments and provide the capacity to make capital investments in the future of the state; and 5) 4% cap on the increase in the property tax levy, claimed to be the key for sustainability of the tax credit system.   Each of these is supposed to contribute to the sustainability of the reform program, with the cap and the credit working off each other to attain the goal.Reacting to the speech, Assembly Minority Leader Alex DeCroce stated that â€Å"sadly, after five years of Democrat control, the state of our state has never been worse.   The toxic mix of high property taxes, public corruption, a mountain of debt, wasteful state spending and anti-economic growth policies are making New Jersey unaffordable for middle class families† (The Associated Press 2007).Superficially, Governor Corzine’s recommendations seem to be nothing more than political grandstanding, since all 120 legislative seats are slated for el ections this year.   Clunn (2006) points out that in 2005, State House representatives promised to enact real property tax reforms by year-end of 2006, with no results.   The recommendations of the State House were effectively countered by the Governor’s apparent desire to negotiate benefits reforms rather than make tax cuts, something that the State House representatives endeavored to get approved for five months.Corzine’s actions since his election have lead to the creation of a blogspot on the internet, called NJ Fiscal Folly, where citizens voice out their criticisms against the Governor.   Many individuals reacted negatively to the raising of sales taxes from 6% to 7%, the refusal of essential state spending reforms, and the addition of $270 Million to the Governor’s already significant pork (NJ Fiscal Folly 2006).For the bloggers, â€Å"any talk about setting aside a portion of the tax increase is simply blather, nothing more than lipstick on the pi g† (NJ Fiscal Folly 2006).   More so when paired with the proposed alternative budget for 2007, which involved barely any spending cuts, save for a lower contribution to the pension system, and the Governor’s threat to shut down state government unless the legislature approves his proposed budget (NJ Fiscal Folly 2006).   The sales tax increase was supposed to supply $1.2 Billion in revenues for the government.There are a few people, however, that are trying to look past the politics and are objectively assessing whether or not the proposals are actually feasible or if they will produce the desired results.   Senator Gormley, a Republican, thinks that the speech given by the Governor gave a â€Å"matter-of-fact outline of what needs to be done†, but it remains to be seen whether or not it will be done (Rispoli 2007), since talk of revenue reform has been just that, talk, for the past half a decade, with New Jersey’s property tax reliance at double th e nationwide rate.   Hester (2007) reports that legislators are hoping to have the new tax system of property tax credits in place before the bills go out this summer, which are checks mailed to homeowners as tax relief.Others reacted more constructively to the Governor’s empowered speech, such as William G. Dressel, Jr. Executive Director of the New Jersey State League of Municipalities.   Dressel (2006) applauded some of the proposed reforms while rejecting others, but stated that the recommendations will â€Å"generally help to limit future pension and benefits costs.†After a preliminary analysis of the proposed recommendations, Dressel (2006) pointed out that there are certain things lacking therein which the special session needs to provide for, such as the burdensome relationship between the real property tax payers and the members of the Police and Firemen’s Retirement System, and the enforcement of the moratorium on new benefits.   Dressel (2006) r ejected outright the proposal to ban dual elective office holding and the tying a portion of property tax relief funding to adherence with the Efficiency Commission.He also commented that with respect to the original recommendation by the governor on shared services, there seemed to be a deviation in the course being taken by the special session.   He pointed out that thus far, there were no recommendations on debt reduction and no specific provisions for sustainability, and that the proposals to modernize the tax system were deficient in supplying a funding source for the changes sought, specifically the tax credit system reducing residential property taxes by 20%.Hester (2007) reports that this 20% cut would require $2 Billion per annum and be funded by money previously allocated for property tax rebates and sales tax revenue, with the government relying on the previous year’s excess sales tax revenue to serve as initial funding, but with the need to find $400 Million mor e each year to fund the tax cut past the current year.Caslander (2007) opines that with the proposed changes, New Jersey would be better of changing its name from the Garden State to the â€Å"Tax Capital†.   Treating the proposals as being analogous to â€Å"finding free cheese in a mouse trap†, Caslander (2007) believes that the solutions will alleviate the problem only for a short term, but that the problem will remain, and in effect, the current proposed solutions will only end up compounding the problem, because the solution involves granting tax relief now but providing for its funding later.Rebovich (2006), after the first special session, commented that perhaps an ideal real property tax reform program would involve an extension of the sales tax, an increase in income tax rates, and savings from benefit reductions, as in effect, the burden would be shared or distributed among different people, and the effects on business and the economy would not be so harsh. Considering that the Governor’s state of the state speech cannot be expected to expound completely the mechanics of the proposed reform, that could perhaps account for the lack of details as to how the proposed changes will work.   At first glance, the proposals seem to conform to Rebovich’s picture of what would be an ideal real property tax reform program to alleviate the current situation in New Jersey.   Both public and private sectors are affected, and it seems that the burden is spread out.   However, there are still many things that need to be addressed.For example, how exactly will the tax credit system work?   How much will it take to develop the system and install it in place of the current system?   How will the new system be funded in order to be put in place?   These questions are as important as determining where the funding for the credits themselves will be taken.   Without concrete plans for the working and implementation of the credit sy stem, it will definitely not work, and the reforms desired will not be attained.Also, what will be the cost of implementing a new system of auditing?   And what guarantee is there that the new state comptroller will be, as he is described â€Å"nonpolitical†?   What about consolidation and shared services?   The Governor stated that this area needs some review, but there must be a specific set of rules or criteria to help determine which areas or branches should be consolidated, and which should remain independent, as well as which particular services should be shared.   As for reduction of pension and health benefits, is there potential liability on the part of the state for those who claim a vested right to the value of the benefits they receive, especially with respect to pension and retirement benefits of those who have been receiving them for years?   Spreading the burden of paying for the proposed reforms is a good idea, but is it just?   What if the state e nds up spending more because of litigation?   Then the expenses would merely be redirected elsewhere, but the burden would still be heavy for a lot of people.   The idea of banning dual elective office holding is a good idea, whatever curtailing effects it might seem to have on the right of suffrage of the electorate.Public office is a public trust, and from the person in office should be expected no less than the duty of utmost fidelity and loyalty to the people he represents.   The tendency in holding dual offices is that the efforts of the public officer will be divided, and the quality of his services might be diminished.   As for Dressel’s arguments against the Efficiency Commission, perhaps a set of rules to govern the proceedings and determinations made by the Commission, as well as a mode of appeal or review of its determinations, would be enough of a safeguard against the danger of subjectivity pointed out.Objectively, the recommendations given are feasible, but more work needs to be put in fine tuning the plans and executing them.   The cooperation of everyone is needed; instead of blindly criticizing, constructive comments and active participation can make the proposals for reform work.Reference List:Dressel Jr., William G. Legislators Haven’t Gone Far Enough For Taxpayers. 23 November 2006. 12 January 2006. ;http://www.app.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=2006611230369;Hester J., Tom.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Corzine: Time is Now For Property Relief.† Courier Post Online.   9 January 2007. 12 January 2007. ;http://www.courierpostonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070109/NEWS01;The Associated Press. Reaction to Corzine’s Speech. 9 January 2007. 12 January 2007. ;http://www.courierpostonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=200770109023;Rispoli, Michael. â€Å"Corzine Reiterates Need For Pension, Health Care System Reforms.† Courier Post Online. 9 January 2007. 12 January 2007. ;http://www.courierpostonline.com/apps/pbc s.dll/article?AID=/20070109/NEWS01;Hester Jr., Tom. â€Å"Democrats See New Deadline for Tax Reform, Hope System Will be in Place Before Bills Go Out This Summer.† Daily Record. 11 January 2007. 12 january 2007. ;http://www.dailyrecord.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=2007601110373;Caslander, Thomas Paine. â€Å"New Jersey Should Change Its Nickname from the Garden State to the ‘Tax Capital’†.   10 January 2007. 12 January 2007.   ;http://www.thedailyjournal.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=2007701100329;Clunn, Nicholas. â€Å"Hopes For Tax Reform Crashed and Burned.† Courier Post Online. 27 December 2006. 12 January 2006. ;http://www.courierpostonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20061227/NEWS01/612270446/-1/ARCHIVES;Blogger. NJ Fiscal Folly. 8 July 2006. 12 January 2007. ;http://njfiscalfolly.blogspot.com/;Rebovich, David P. Political Interests and Economic Reality Clash at Special Session. 2 August 2006. 12 January 2007. ;http://politics.nexcess. net/rebovich/2006/08/political_interests_and_econom.html;

Assess the impact of the Truman Doctrine and the M Essays

Assess the impact of the Truman Doctrine and the M Essays Assess the impact of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan on the development of the Cold War between 1945 and 1949. Marina Gutierrez IB History Y2 Nicholas 13 March 2015 While many historians disagree over who is to blame for the Cold War, it can be wholeheartedly agreed upon that the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan were essential turning points in the U.S. role in the Cold War. The final years of the second World War and the Yalta conference all demonstrated the differences in opinions, policies, and goals between the U.S. and USSR; these differences that would grow and cause a huge rift between the two superpowers. America was becoming increasingly alarmed by the growth of Soviet power. So, when the British told Truman they could no longer afford to keep their soldiers in Greece, Truman stepped in to take over. In March 1947, he told the American Congress it was America's job to stop communism growing any stronger. It is often said that Truman advocated containment (stopping the Soviet getting any more powerful), but Truman did not use this word and many Americans spoke of rolling back communism. The Truman Doctrine was a response to a crisis . Behind it lay the Communist/Soviet takeover of many of the countries of eastern Europe by salami tactics' - which, Truman alleged, was in breach of Stalin's promises at the Yalta Conference. The idea of these historians here is that, in his speech, Truman drew a line in the sand' - Communism could keep what it had got, but he would not let it grow any more. This implication is one of an America justifiably resisting - containing' - any further Soviet aggression. Marshall Plan nations were assisted greatly in their economic recovery. From 1948 through 1952 European economies grew at an unprecedented rate. Trade relations led to the formation of the North Atlantic alliance. Economic prosperity led by coal and steel industries helped to shape what we know now as the European Union. The majority of the funds provided, went to purchase goods, mainly manufactured or produced in the United States. At the beginning, this was primarily food and fuel. Although this may also be considered the main criticism of the program; in that America was following a concept for economic imperialism, in an attempt to gain economic control of Europe. But in reality, the amounts that America donated as part of the Marshall Plan, can hardly be considered imperialism, in that they represent only a small fraction of the GNP, and the duration of the program was limited from the start. In Germany, a vast amount of money was invested in the rebuilding of industry, with the coal industry alone receiving 40% of these funds. The concept was simple enough, companies that were provided such funds, were obliged to repay these loans to their government, so that these same funds could be used to assist other businesses and industries. Post-war Germany had been forced to dismantle a great deal of its major factories and industries, according to guidelines enforced by the Allied Control Council. Figures for car production alone had been set to levels that represented only 10% of pre-war numbers. With the introduction by the Western Allies of the German Mark as the new official currency, on June 21, 1948, a new economic era was signalled within Europe and especially Germany. The Petersberg Agreement, signed in November 1949, increased these production figures for Germany dramatically.

Free Essays on Casino Gambling Guide

Table Of Contents How to Play Baccarat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 How to Play Blackjack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 How to Play Craps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 How to Play Big Board Keno . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 How to Play Roulette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 How to Play The Slot Machines . . . . . . . . . . 22 How to Play Casino Poker/Texas Hold’em . 24 How to Play Video Poker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 HOW TO PLAY BACCARAT As with all table games, you begin by changing your cash money into gaming chips. In Baccarat, these gaming chips are quite a bit bigger than the regular casino chips. There is absolutely no reason for this other than the aura of special importance that Baccarat seeks to cultivate. Perhaps the casinos think that players will feel better about betting large amounts if they have big chips in their hands. But no matter how big these chips are, they function in exactly the same way as any other gaming chips in play throughout the casino. They can be changed for cash if you wish, or for regular casino chips. At the Baccarat table it doesn't matter which seat you take. Unlike Blackjack, in which position selection can be advantageous in a game with more players, in American Baccarat you are not playing against the other players, or against the House. Your betting action is against the cards. It therefore makes no difference what the other players bet on, or how much, or what order the cards are dealt in. In Blackjack, for instance, other players at the table ahead of you in the turn of dealing can affect what cards you will receive when it's your turn to draw. This is why position selection can be so important. But in American Baccarat this doesn't matter. Even if a designated player at the Baccarat table does draw the cards, no player decisions are involved. Whether any additional cards are drawn depends entirely on... Free Essays on Casino Gambling Guide Free Essays on Casino Gambling Guide Table Of Contents How to Play Baccarat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 How to Play Blackjack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 How to Play Craps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 How to Play Big Board Keno . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 How to Play Roulette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 How to Play The Slot Machines . . . . . . . . . . 22 How to Play Casino Poker/Texas Hold’em . 24 How to Play Video Poker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 HOW TO PLAY BACCARAT As with all table games, you begin by changing your cash money into gaming chips. In Baccarat, these gaming chips are quite a bit bigger than the regular casino chips. There is absolutely no reason for this other than the aura of special importance that Baccarat seeks to cultivate. Perhaps the casinos think that players will feel better about betting large amounts if they have big chips in their hands. But no matter how big these chips are, they function in exactly the same way as any other gaming chips in play throughout the casino. They can be changed for cash if you wish, or for regular casino chips. At the Baccarat table it doesn't matter which seat you take. Unlike Blackjack, in which position selection can be advantageous in a game with more players, in American Baccarat you are not playing against the other players, or against the House. Your betting action is against the cards. It therefore makes no difference what the other players bet on, or how much, or what order the cards are dealt in. In Blackjack, for instance, other players at the table ahead of you in the turn of dealing can affect what cards you will receive when it's your turn to draw. This is why position selection can be so important. But in American Baccarat this doesn't matter. Even if a designated player at the Baccarat table does draw the cards, no player decisions are involved. Whether any additional cards are drawn depends entirely on...

Criminal justice case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Criminal justice case study - Essay Example As there is a possibility of conflict between State and Federal law resulting in jeopardy, US attorneys are directed to check with the Attorney General before prosecuting any case that shows the possibility of a double jeopardy. There is a possibility of double jeopardy when the defendant in a trial prefers not to testify his defense and later on asserts that he is not given ample opportunity to defend his side. So, it is for the trial judge to see that the defendant’s refusal to testify his own defense properly comes on the trial record. Otherwise, it later leads to double jeopardy. In cases like the present one where the defendant adopts ‘nolo contendere’ or no contest by not testifying his defense, there is a high possibility of double jeopardy as the different States in the US have different laws relating to the acceptance of nolo contendere. However, the general notion is that it is considered similar to guilty plea, and as it saves time and money, and as it calls for mercy, there is a possible reduction in sentence. At this juncture, as Justice Bhatt (n.d), depending on the circumstances of the case, the court can even immediately impose sentence. It seems that by not taking the stand in his own defense, the defendant has not made any influence on the jury. It seems like the usual way of concluding a case when the defendant does not defend his own stand. In this particular case, the victim identified the defendant in a lineup. In addition, the defendant did not care to take his defense. In normal course, either the defendant can plead ‘not guilty’ or ‘guilty’; in addition, the defendant can also plea ‘nolo contendere’ which means ‘no contest’ (Mueller & Kirkpatrick, 1999, p. 355). This simply means that the defendant is ready to accept any sentence handed down, but does not admit the factual guilt. Thus, in

PhD proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

PhD proposal - Essay Example My major field is in infection and immunity for which I have received training covering a wide range of practical molecular and cellular laboratory skills that have broad relevance to research in the biosciences. Furthermore, I have solid training and personal development experience in genetics that enhanced my transferable skills and attitude. The search for knowledge is unending. This is the reason why I would like to pursue a PhD in Biomedical Science. My interest in biomedical science and its potential application to contribute knowledge to finding a cure for HIV has played a key role in my pursuit of advanced study. I have been a passionate student and professional medical worker for the past twenty years of my life. Specifically, the challenge of understanding and finding a cure for HIV has been an enduring part of my career such that I am very keen to study this subject in more depth. Since HIV/AIDS affects more than 30 million people worldwide, the impact of a better, more available, and cheaper cure will definitely send ripples of positivism across the globe. I think that utilizing natural microflora and bacteria to fight the AIDS virus is a novel idea that is worth dedicated research effort. By proving this hypothesis to be right, microbiological agents to fight the AIDS virus can be discovered and designed. The success of this approach can save millions of AIDS patients around the world. Moreover, the knowledge and training that I will gain as an outcome of this endeavour will be advantageous for the institution that I currently work for as microbiology laboratory technician. Presently, no one else is working on this type of project. The skills and the networks that I will build will enhance the capacity of my institution in this aspect of research. Furthermore, as a PhD degree holder, I will be able to lead research studies that will allow me to build up on the very areas that I am